DOI:  10.55804/jtsuSPEKALI-18-15

Introduction

As is known, the theory of conceptual metaphor gave impetus to understanding metaphor as one way of human cognition of the world from the standpoint of cognitive linguistics. According to Lakoff and Johnson's fundamental theory of conceptual metaphor (2003), metaphor facilitates human perception of the world. It is one of the necessary tools in the differentiation and conceptualization of the world.

Metaphorization of world perception, as a cognitive event, involves the transfer and adaptation of context-relevant associations (or characteristic properties) from the initial (specific) sphere of the metaphor to its target (abstract) sphere. This makes the target concept easily accessible and reveals its properties. Interestingly, a person bases the process of the world perception on his or society's experience, which is mainly possible through the specification of an abstract phenomenon.

Verbal or non-verbal expressions of emotions are also culturally specific phenomena (Sharifian, 2017). Since the conceptual metaphor presents universal and particular features of human thinking and reflects the linguistically expressed cognitive process, it naturally gives rise to universal and variant models of metaphorical thinking. Accordingly, in both cases, there is a metaphorical interpretation of a particular cultural event (Maleej, 2007; Kövecses, 2015; Sharifian, 2017; Rusieshvili-Cartledge & Dolidze, 2020).

This article aims to study the specifics of the metaphorical conceptualization of hatred in Georgian and English languages and identify and analyze universal and variant models in these languages ​​and cultures.

2. Methodology and empirical research material

The methodological basis of the work is (1) Z. Kövecses' theory of cultural metaphorical models (Kövecses, 2010) and (2) M. Rusieshvili's semantic-pragmatic model of metaphor (Rusieshvili, 2005; 2023).

Kövecses believes that the multifaceted process of conceptual metaphorisation is related to the cultural context. Therefore, conceptual metaphors may be a cultural phenomenon that gives rise to universal and variant models. A universal metaphorical model can be repeated in many similar or different cultures and is based on similar experiences of societies. On the other hand, metaphor variability is also complex and multifaceted and can be related to cultural, social, regional, ethnic, diachronic, cultural or individual variables.

According to the semantic-pragmatic model of decoding a faded, conventional metaphor proposed by M. Rusieshvili (2005; 2024), a metaphor consists of three interconnected layers. The first layer contains the verbal surface structure of the metaphor and its figurative meaning. On the second layer are its semantic-pragmatic (contextual) parameters, and on the third layer, the cultural model of the world depicted by the metaphor and based on the social, cultural, or historical experience of society is fixed. In the third layer, the nature and type of the connection between the spheres of the metaphor are also indicated. All three layers of the semantic-pragmatic model of the metaphor are essential, and their synthesis creates this interesting phenomenon.

Depending on the type of mapping of associations and characteristic properties from the initial sphere of the metaphor to the target sphere, three types of metaphor can be discussed (Rusieshvili, 2024). These are anthropomorphic metaphors, cultural metaphors and, thirdly, combined metaphors. In the case of anthropomorphic metaphor, the initial field of metaphorisation and its basis is the human body or its physiological and psychological characteristics; for example, სიძულვილი შემოაფრქვია თვალებით (Hatred flashed through his/her eyes); ზიზღისგან შეაჟრჟოლა (He shivered with disgust).

The second group of metaphors is based on the cultural model created by the experience of society and serves as a culturally specific expression of a particular emotion. The starting point of such metaphor is often based on a specific notion prevalent in society or an essential cultural experience; for example, ჩვენმა თაობამ არ უნდა დაუშვას, რომ სიძულვილმა ფესვები გაიდგას (Our generation must not allow hatred to take root). Spreading hatred in this example is likened to a plant taking root. Accordingly, this metaphor visualises hatred as a plant.

The third type of metaphor (combined metaphor) includes both entities described above; for example, სოფლის გულში შური, მტრობა და სიძულვილი ფუთფუთებდა (Envy, enmity and hatred were bubbling in the heart of the village). In this case, the heart of the village is associated with an anthropomorphic metaphor, and the metaphorical transposition of the movement of insects to hatred creates a metaphor based on the cultural experience. A combined metaphor can usually be part of several conceptual metaphorical models. For example, the above example can be attributed to the following conceptual models: HEART IS THE CONTAINER OF HATRED, and HATRED IS THE INSECTS' NEST.

The data analysed in this article were selected from language corpora (Georgian National Corpus and British National Corpus). The originality and conventionality of metaphors were checked in dictionaries of idioms and metaphors.

The collected material was analysed in two stages. In the first stage, metaphorical conceptualisation models of HATRED were found and distinguished in both research languages. At this stage, attention was focused on all relevant units of the semantic field of emotion. For example, the potential of metaphorical conceptualisation of other entities with the semantics of HATRED in Georgian and English languages ​​was tested. In Georgian, this group, in addition to სიძულვილი, includes ზიზღი, ბოღმა and in English, disgust, loathing, revulsion, and repugnance. In the second stage of the analysis, universal and variable models were compared and distinguished. That being said, much attention was paid to the relationship between the planes of metaphor during the analysis and the transfer of associations and properties from the source domain to the target domain in the metaphorical conceptualisation of this emotion. In drawing up metaphorical models, we relied on the classification of Rusieshvili (2023) and the experience of conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003), according to which metaphors are united in generalised semantic-conceptual models.

3. Metaphorisation of hatred in Georgian and English languages

3.1 The following models of the conceptualization of the emotion of hatred (and its semantic field) were revealed in the Georgian language material obtained:

I. HUMAN BODY (heart) IS A CONTAINER OF HATRED

1) ნუ ჩაიდებ გულში, ამოიგდე ეგ ბოღმა და სიძულვილი, თორემ გაგიჭირდება სიარული. (Do not put [it] in your heart, get rid of that disgust and hatred; otherwise, it will be difficult for you to walk).

2) სიძულვილით აივსო/აევსო გული (His/her) heart was filled with hatred).

II. HATRED IS A PRESSURIZED LIQUID IN A CONTAINER (heart, eyes, soul, throat).

3) იფეთქებს [გულში/სულში] სრულიად გარკვეული წყენა და სიძულვილი (a certain resentment and hatred erupts [in the heart/soul].

4) რისხვა და სიძულვილი შემოაფრქვია თვალებით (He/she flashed anger and hatred through his/her eyes).

III. HATRED IS LIGHT/FLAME/HEAT

5) მისმა ნათქვამმა გააღვივა სიძულვილი (What he said incited hatred; word-for-word: what he said set the hatred up (like a fire).

 6) სიძულვილი წვავდა [მას] (Hate burned [him/her]).

IV. HATRED IS A SHARP OBJECT

7) თითქოს თავს დაეცა მას ნადირის საშინელი ბოღმა, როგორც გალესილი სამართებელი (It was as if a terrible hatred of a beast of prey had fallen upon him, like a sharp blade)

V. HATRED IS A NATURAL PHENOMENON (volcano)

8) ჯურღმულში მთვლემარე ბოღმა იღვიძებდა  (In the dungeon, the dozing hatred was waking up).

VI. HATRED IS THE SEA (water)

9) ბორგავს გულში დაგუბებული ბოღმა ( Pooled revulsion is swirling in the heart).

VII. HATRED IS AN INSECT'S NEST

10) სოფლის გულში შური, მტრობა და სიძულვილი ფუთფუთებდა (Envy, enmity and hatred were wriggling in the heart of the village).

VIII. HATRED IS A POISONOUS PLANT

11) ნელ-ნელა გულში ლენცოფა, ზიზღი და ფიზიკური მძულვარება აღმოცენდა და გაიშალა. (Little by little, hebdanes, hatred and physical hatred arose [as a plant] in the heart and spread).

12) ჩვენმა თაობამ არ უნდა დაუშვას, რომ სიძულვილმა ფესვები გაიდგას (Our generation must not allow hatred to spread roots).

13) ეს ყველაფერი სიძულვილსა და ზიზღს მინერგავდა (All this planted hatred and contempt [in me]).

14) სიძულვილის მთესველები, უფასოდ დადიან და ტკბებიან ამ პარკით (Hatemongers walk around and enjoy this park for free).

IX. HATRED IS A DISEASE

15) ზიზღით გულს აზიდებს ([He/she] is throwing up in disgust).

X. HATRED IS AN ENEMY/RIVAL

16) კითხვაზე ყეენმა დამაკმაყოფილებელი პასუხი ვერ მიიღო, ბოღმა მოერია, დასუსტდა და სახლიდან გავიდა (The shah couldn't obtain a satisfactory answer to the question, he got beaten by disgust, got weak and left the house).

XI. HATRED IS FOOD/DRINK

17) სიძულვილის მფრქვეველი და სიძულვილით ნაკვები საზოგადოება გამოვდივართ (We turn out to be a society fed by hatred and sprinkling hatred).

18) სიძულვილით/ზიზღით სავსე ფიალა გამოსცალა (He drank a vial full of hatred/contempt up to the end).

XII. HATRED IS  COLD

19) მის დანახვაზე ზიზღით შეაჟრჟოლა (Seeing him, he shivered with disgust).

XIII. HATRED IS A POISON

20) წამლავენ საზოგადოებას სიძულვილით, რომელიც გვიბრუნდება ყველას ([They] poison society with hatred that comes back to us all).

XIV. HATRED IS AN ANIMAL

21) სიძულვილით სისინებს (He/she is hissing with hatred).

As can be seen from the above examples, there are several relevant models of metaphorical conceptualisation of hatred in the Georgian language, the specificity of which is especially evident during the analysis of the initial sphere of the metaphor and its characteristic features transferred to the target sphere (hatred). In this regard, the metaphorical conceptualisation of hatred is frequently associated with the human body; for example, in the model, THE HUMAN BODY (heart) IS THE CONTAINER OF HATRED, the most crucial vital organ of the human being (heart) metaphorically "holds" the emotion of hatred. The second, apparently the most productive model is HATRED IS A PRESSURISED LIQUID IN A CONTAINER. This model considers specific parts of the human body as a starting point for this emotion.

In addition, the function of a container can be performed by any lexical unit related to the human body (in the above examples - heart, eyes,  soul, and throat). Interestingly, in the same model, HATRED IS A PRESSURISED LIQUID IN A CONTAINER, the meaning of the loss of control is also visible, which implies the release of hatred as a compressed liquid/substance from the human body as a container. The type and degree of release or attempted release (exploding, spraying, turmoil, etc.) are described. Therefore, in each case, during metaphorization, only context-relevant associations are transferred from the initial sphere to the target (which, as we mentioned, is materialised on the third layer of the semantic-pragmatic model of metaphor). In example (3), these are the associations relevant to the explosion (noise, flames, smoke, the sound of sirens, etc.), the fullness and drama of which can be considered an individual event.

The second type of metaphor (metaphorical conceptualisation related to the cultural experience of the society) is also interesting. From this point of view, Georgian material revealed that, for example, hatred can be equated to the burning of an object in flames. At the same time, a person's emotional state can be associated with the burning process. The intensity of hatred is equated with the flames of fire and high temperature. In the transfer process of this main semantic component, other relevant properties of fire, for example, heat and glow, may emerge, which, although related to the initial source, does not appear decisive for this particular emotion, namely, the association of weakening of flames.

The third, combined type of metaphorization also revealed interesting metaphors. For example, in the model, HATRED IS A SHARP OBJECT (თითქოს თავს დაეცა მას ნადირის საშინელი ბოღმა,როგორც გალესილი სამართებელი (It was as if a terrible hatred of a beast of prey had fallen upon him, like a sharp blade), hatred appears as a sharp object that falls on a person's head.

As mentioned earlier, combined metaphors can be members of several models. For example,(17) corresponds to the models HATRED IS A PRESSURISED LIQUID IN A CONTAINER, and HATRED IS FOOD.

3.2 Metaphorical conceptualization of  hatred  in English

I.    THE BODY IS A CONTAINER FULL OF HATRED (face, soul).

 22) At demonstrations, he had seen faces filled with hatred, which reminded him of the months preceding Hitler's rise to power in 1933.

  23) His voice was full of anger and hatred.

II.  HATRED IS A PRESSURIZED LIQUID/SUBSTANCE IN A CONTAINER

 24) When I told Chris I was pregnant, I expected panic certainly, but not the hatred that came pouring from him.

III. HATRED IS LIGHT/FLAME/HEAT

25) The good eye glittered with fear and hatred.

26)  Her green eyes gleamed with hatred.

27) The fires of fury and hatred were smoldering in her small black eyes.

IV. HATRED IS A DRINK/FOOD

28) Then he remembered how the worm was said to feed off hatred.

V.  HATRED IS A STREAM/SEA OF WATER

29) Jack could feel the waves of hatred washing over him — a real force which literally buffeted him.

VI. HATRED IS AN ANIMAL

30) He sweats hatred like an angry boar.

31) They faced each other across the room, their hatred bristling and crackling between them.

32) 'Robert,' he said, eventually, in a slow hiss of hatred.

VII. HATRED IS A BUILDING

33) In that space of time, you're going to build up hatred.

VIII. HATRED IS POISON

34) Hatred ran like poison through his every thought.

IX. HATRED IS A PHYSICAL PUNISHMENT

35) He would feel my hatred like a whip on his back.

X.  HATRED IS A SHARP OBJECT

36) She meant it, a fierce spike of hatred which seemed to impale her.

XI. HATRED IS COLD

37)  Mute, drunk and dislike was easier than the cold hatred of the last few weeks.

XII. HATRED IS COLOUR (black)

38) Nuadu felt the black hatred emanating from him again.

XIII. HATRED IS FUEL

39) He had been a keen and willing convert to the cause, his hatred fueled by GrobMitzer whom he knew and trusted as a friend and corporate colleague.

XIV. HATRED IS A DISEASE

40) How was such malignant hatred brought to birth, when he had meant nothing but good, and tried with all his soul to work no evil against them?

XV. HATRED IS A NATURAL PHENOMENON (wind)

41) Irene had lived surrounded by the gales of hatred, but remained untouched by them behind the high wall that had protected her since childhood …

XVI. HATRED IS A PLANT

42) But the 50s was also a time of the Festival of Britain and of looking forward with hope and determination to bury the roots of hatred and grow the fruits of love.

XVII. HATRED IS BITTERNESS

43) Now she would have given up every lingering resentment, every long and bitter hatred, to have the boy back at Adam's banker, humbly cutting stone.

XVIII. HATRED IS A LIVING ORGANISM

44) Unionists may not be ready to judge the republic on its merits for years yet, and the hatred bred by three centuries of religious animosity is not going to be bartered away by any group of politicians.

The analysis of the material reveals that the metaphorisation of hatred in the English language is presented in a diverse and wide range. All three types of metaphors were confirmed in the material. In particular, during the metaphorical conceptualisation of hatred (and its semantic equivalents), the face, heart, voice, and body are often used as the initial sphere of the metaphor in the case of anthropomorphic metaphors as the containers of hatred. It is interesting how human physiological sensations are linked to this emotion. For example, hatred is metaphorised as coldness and bitterness. In this case, the accompanying and unifying associations of cold, anger and hatred (contempt) relevant to the context are foregrounded during the metaphorical transfer.

The second type of metaphorisation gives rise to metaphors reflecting society's experience. In this regard, it is interesting, for example, to associate hatred with a plant. The material confirmed metaphors for sowing seeds of hatred, plant growth, and rooting. We also find it interesting to associate the negative connotation of hatred with an animal (boar, snake).

The study also confirmed the third type (combined) metaphorisation. In example (27), the lexical item "smouldering" emphasises reducing the fire's heat and intensity.

4. Universal models of metaphorical conceptualization of hatred in Georgian and English.

The final stage of the research is to reveal universal and variable models expressing HATRED in Georgian and English languages ​​and cultures.

 According to our material, the following universal models were identified:

1. HATRED IS A CONTAINER.

2. HATRED IS A PRESSURISED LIQUID IN A CONTAINER.

3. HATRED IS LIGHT/HEAT.

4.  HATRED IS A SHARP OBJECT.

5.  HATRED IS NATURAL PHENOMENON.

6. HATRED IS A PLANT.

7. HATRED IS COLD.

8. HATRED IS A DISEASE.

9. HATRED IS POISON.

10. HATRED IS AN ANIMAL.

11. HATRED IS FOOD/DRINK.

12. HATRED IS A STREAM OF WATER.

Universal models indicate a general similarity in the process of metaphorisation, which is made even more interesting because the universal model does not imply a complete coincidence of the metaphor icon. For example, the model HATRED IS AN ANIMAL includes images of animals with negative connotations in both languages. On the other hand, the metaphor of a snake (in Georgian) and an image of a snake and a boar are foregrounded in English. Also, during the metaphorisation of the connection between natural events and hatred, the theme of wind/hurricane was foregrounded in the English material. In contrast, the theme of volcano and whirlwind emerged in the Georgian material.

5. Conclusion

Interestingly, more than ten universal metaphorical models of hatred were revealed in different languages and cultures- Georgian and English. In particular, both cultures sometimes associate similar social experiences (cold, natural disaster, plant or liquid in a container, etc.).

Exploration and comparison of the universal and variable models established during the study of the metaphorical conceptualization of this emotion revealed that such studies are interesting for unravelling the specificity of the metaphorical conceptualization of the world. In this regard, it seems especially valuable to study unrelated material from the historical-cultural and linguistic point of view.